Part I: The World of the Poppy

Chapter 1: A Botanical Introduction to the Poppy Family (Papaveraceae)

To truly master the art of growing poppies, the gardener must first become a student of their botanical identity. The word “poppy” conjures images of vibrant, papery flowers, but this common name represents a vast and diverse group of plants. Understanding their classification, shared characteristics, and global footprint is the foundation upon which all successful cultivation is built. The journey begins not with a single flower, but with an entire plant family: the Papaveraceae.

Defining the Family

The Papaveraceae, known informally as the poppy family, is an economically and culturally significant family of flowering plants belonging to the order Ranunculales. It is a large family, comprising approximately 42 genera and around 775 known species. While famed for their showy flowers, the members of this family are predominantly herbaceous plants, meaning they have non-woody stems. Most are annuals, biennials, or perennials that die back to the ground each year. However, the family also includes a few shrubs and even small trees, such as the Tree Poppy (  

Dendromecon rigida), showcasing a surprising diversity in growth habits.  

Global Distribution

The poppy family is cosmopolitan, with its members found across the globe, primarily in temperate and subtropical climates. The family has a strong presence in the Northern Hemisphere, with notable centers of diversity in Eastern Asia and western North America, particularly California. Many familiar garden species, from the Oriental Poppy to the California Poppy, hail from these regions. Conversely, the family is almost entirely absent from tropical zones. This distribution pattern is a crucial clue for the gardener, indicating that most poppies thrive in climates with distinct seasons and are generally not suited for consistently hot, humid environments.  

Taxonomic Classification

The scientific classification of plants is a dynamic field, and the Papaveraceae family is a prime example of how modern genetic analysis has reshaped our understanding of plant relationships. Under the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) system, the family Papaveraceae is placed within the order Ranunculales, part of the large clade of eudicots, which encompasses the majority of flowering plants.  

A significant development in recent taxonomy is the broad circumscription of Papaveraceae. This modern classification now includes three groups that were previously treated as separate families: Papaveraceae sensu stricto (the poppies in their traditional sense), Fumariaceae (the fumitory family), and Pteridophyllaceae. This means that plants once considered distant cousins are now recognized as close relatives within the same family. For the gardener, this connection explains the shared characteristics between poppies and plants like the bleeding heart (  

Lamprocapnos spectabilis) and corydalis (Corydalis), which are now classified within the Papaveraceae subfamily Fumarioideae.  

The family is now typically divided into two main subfamilies:

• Papaveroideae: This subfamily includes the “true” poppies that most gardeners recognize, such as those in the genera Papaver (Oriental, Corn, and Opium Poppies), Eschscholzia (California Poppies), Meconopsis (Himalayan Poppies), and Romneya (Matilija Poppies).  
• Fumarioideae: This subfamily contains the former Fumariaceae family, including genera like Corydalis, Dicentra (which includes bleeding hearts), and Fumaria (fumitory).  

This reclassification underscores a fundamental point for the horticulturalist: the term “poppy” is a broad, conceptual label applied to many different plants across multiple genera within the Papaveraceae family. The iconic red Flanders Poppy (  

Papaver rhoeas) and the golden California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica) are both called poppies, yet they belong to different genera and have vastly different growth habits and cultural needs. A successful poppy gardener must therefore think beyond the common name and appreciate the rich taxonomic diversity it encompasses.

Key Characteristics

Despite their diversity, members of the Papaveraceae family are united by several key botanical traits. These characteristics are not merely academic points; they are the very source of the poppy’s unique beauty, its potent chemistry, and its specific cultivation requirements.

Alkaloids: The Chemical Signature

The single most important unifying characteristic of the Papaveraceae family is its production of potent isoquinoline-derived alkaloids. These complex chemical compounds are the source of the family’s fame and infamy. They are responsible for the powerful medicinal properties of species like the opium poppy (  

Papaver somniferum), which produces well-known alkaloids such as morphine, codeine, and thebaine. These substances have been used for millennia as analgesics and sedatives, forming the bedrock of modern pharmacology.  

However, this same chemical signature is also the source of the plants’ toxicity. All parts of most poppy plants, with the common exception of the seeds, are poisonous if ingested due to these alkaloids. This inherent toxicity explains the poppy’s complex relationship with humanity—a plant that can heal and soothe but also harm and addict. This duality, rooted in its biochemistry, is reflected in its rich cultural symbolism, where it simultaneously represents sleep and death, peace and sacrifice.  

Latex

The alkaloids are contained within a milky or colored sap, known as latex, which most species in the family secrete when their tissues are injured. This latex is most famously seen in the opium poppy, where the milky fluid from the unripe seed pod is harvested to produce opium. For the gardener, this latex serves as a clear identifying feature of the family and a visual reminder of the plant’s potent chemical nature.  

Flower Structure

The beauty of the poppy lies in its distinctive floral structure. While there is variation, a typical poppy flower possesses several defining features:

• Sepals: The flower bud is enclosed by two sepals, which protect the developing petals. These sepals fall away as the flower opens, a characteristic trait of the family.  
• Petals: The flowers are renowned for their showy petals, typically numbering four or six. These petals are often delicate and papery, appearing crumpled inside the bud before unfurling into their full glory. They come in nearly every color imaginable and may feature intricate markings or blotches at their base.  
• Stamens: At the center of the flower is a conspicuous whorl of numerous stamens, which produce pollen. The pollen color can vary by species; for example, the Oriental Poppy has dark blue pollen, while the Corn Poppy’s pollen is grayish-green.  
• Ovary: The stamens surround a central ovary, which is composed of two or more fused carpels. After pollination by insects like bees, which use poppies as a rich pollen source, this ovary develops into the characteristic seed capsule.  

Chapter 2: The Poppy in Human Culture: A Tapestry of Symbolism and History

Few flowers possess a history as rich, complex, and fraught with contradiction as the poppy. For millennia, it has been entwined with human civilization as a source of medicine, a symbol of gods, an engine of trade, an emblem of war, and an inspiration for art. This deep cultural resonance is not accidental; it is a direct consequence of the plant’s unique biochemical properties and humanity’s long and often turbulent relationship with them.

The Ancient World: From Joy Plant to Symbol of Gods

The story of the poppy begins in the cradle of civilization. Archaeological evidence suggests that the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, was domesticated by the indigenous peoples of Western and Central Europe between 6000 and 3500 BC. The earliest written records trace back to the Sumerians in Mesopotamia around 3400 BC, who called it  

Hul Gil, the “joy plant,” recognizing its euphoric properties.  

This knowledge was passed through successive empires. The ancient Egyptians used poppies extensively in their medicinal preparations and associated them with funeral rites, viewing the flower as a symbol of eternal sleep and rebirth. The Greeks and Romans wove the poppy deeply into their mythology. It became an emblem of Demeter (Ceres to the Romans), the goddess of the harvest and fertility, who was often depicted holding poppies. Legend tells that Demeter created the poppy to find sleep and solace from her grief over the abduction of her daughter, Persephone, forever linking the flower to mourning and consolation.  

The flower’s sedative effects led to its association with a trinity of nocturnal deities: Hypnos (god of sleep), Thanatos (god of death), and Morpheus (god of dreams). These gods were often portrayed wearing crowns of poppies or holding them, illustrating the ancient understanding of the plant’s power. This dual association with both sleep and death reveals a profound insight: the ancients recognized that the poppy’s effects were dose-dependent. A small amount could bring restful sleep and dreams, while a larger dose could bring the eternal sleep of death. This pharmacological reality—the fine line between medicine and poison—is the very root of the poppy’s complex and often contradictory symbolism that has persisted for thousands of years.  

The Silk Road and the Opium Wars

From its Mediterranean origins, the cultivation and knowledge of the poppy spread eastward along the ancient trade routes collectively known as the Silk Road. Opium became a valuable commodity, traded alongside silks and spices, making its way through Persia, India, and into China.  

It was in the 18th and 19th centuries that the poppy’s role in history took a darker turn. The British East India Company, seeking to balance its massive trade deficit from the importation of Chinese tea, began to illegally smuggle vast quantities of Indian-grown opium into China. This led to widespread addiction, social upheaval, and ultimately, two devastating conflicts known as the Opium Wars (1839–1842 and 1856–1860). These wars, fought to force China to accept the opium trade, marked a pivotal and shameful chapter in the history of colonialism and global trade, cementing the poppy’s status as a plant of both immense utility and profound controversy.  

The Red Poppy of Remembrance

In the 20th century, a different species, the common field poppy (Papaver rhoeas), would become one of the world’s most powerful and poignant symbols of remembrance. Its transformation is inextricably linked to the battlefields of World War I.  

The churned-up, lime-rich soil of the Western Front, particularly in the Flanders region of Belgium, created the perfect conditions for these resilient wildflowers to flourish. Amidst the devastation and bloodshed, fields of brilliant red poppies bloomed, growing over the graves of fallen soldiers. This stark contrast of vibrant life against a backdrop of death made a deep impression on the soldiers.  

This image was immortalized in 1915 by Canadian physician and Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae in his poem, “In Flanders Fields”. The poem’s opening lines, “In Flanders fields the poppies blow / Between the crosses, row on row,” captured the collective grief of a generation and forever linked the red poppy with the sacrifice of war.  

The poem inspired an American professor and humanitarian, Moina Michael, who penned a response, “We Shall Keep the Faith,” and vowed to always wear a red poppy to honor the fallen. She campaigned tirelessly to have the poppy adopted as a national symbol of remembrance. Her efforts, along with those of a French woman named Madame Guérin, led to the adoption of the poppy by veterans’ organizations, including the Royal British Legion in the UK and the American Legion and Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) in the US. Today, millions of people wear paper or fabric poppies on Remembrance Day (November 11th) and Memorial Day to honor the service and sacrifice of military personnel.  

Decoding the Colors: A Modern Symbolic Language

While the red poppy holds a specific historical meaning, different colors have acquired their own unique symbolism, particularly in modern gift-giving and commemoration.  

• Red (Papaver rhoeas): The most famous symbol, representing remembrance, sacrifice, and consolation for those lost in war. In some Eastern cultures, it can also signify passionate love.  
• White: White poppies are used as a symbol of peace and non-violence, a tradition that began with the Women’s Co-operative Guild in Britain in 1933 as a pledge to “never again” allow war. They also carry the older connotations of mourning and eternal sleep.  
• Purple: A more recent addition to the symbolic palette, the purple poppy is worn to honor the lives of animals that have served and died in military conflicts.  
• Yellow: These bright, cheerful poppies convey messages of success, prosperity, and optimism for the future, making them suitable for celebrating milestones like graduations or promotions.  
• Pink & Green: This combination exemplifies new beginnings, growth, hope, and resilience in the face of adversity.  
• Blue: The rare and exotic Himalayan Blue Poppy (Meconopsis) represents imagination, creativity, and the pursuit of dreams, making it a perfect gift for an artist or someone embarking on a new creative venture.  

The Poppy in Art and Culture

Beyond war and medicine, the poppy’s delicate beauty has captivated artists and designers for centuries. Its vibrant hues and papery texture have been a recurring motif in visual art, most famously captured in Claude Monet’s Impressionist masterpiece, “Poppies”. The flower has also inspired fashion, jewelry, and home decor.  

In the United States, one species holds a place of special honor. The California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica), a resilient and drought-tolerant native, was officially designated the state flower of California in 1903, a floral emblem of the Golden State. Its ability to blanket hillsides in a fiery orange bloom makes it a cherished symbol of natural beauty and resilience.  

Part II: A Gardener’s Gallery of Poppies

The world of poppies available to the home gardener is vast and varied, extending far beyond the iconic red field poppy. From towering perennials that command attention to delicate alpines suited for the smallest rockery, there is a poppy for nearly every garden style and climate. This section serves as a curated gallery, profiling the most important and beloved species and cultivars, providing the detailed knowledge needed to choose the perfect poppy for your landscape.

Chapter 3: The Icons of the Garden: In-Depth Species Profiles

These five species represent the pillars of poppy cultivation, each with a unique character, life cycle, and set of requirements. Mastering these icons is the key to becoming a successful poppy grower.

3.1 Oriental Poppy (Papaver orientale)

Overview: The Oriental Poppy is the undisputed king of the perennial border, a long-lived, clump-forming herbaceous plant celebrated for its colossal, dramatic flowers that blaze into color in late spring and early summer. Native to the rugged landscapes of Central Asia, including Turkey and Iran, this species brings an architectural and opulent presence to the garden.  

Characteristics: Plants form substantial clumps, typically reaching a height of 2 to 4 feet. The foliage is one of its most distinctive features: large, coarse, grayish-green leaves up to a foot long, which are deeply dissected and covered in bristly hairs, giving them a thistle-like appearance. From this mound of foliage rise strong, hairy stems, each bearing a single, enormous, cup-shaped flower. These blooms can be 4 to 8 inches across, with silky, crepe-paper petals in a dazzling array of colors including fiery orange, scarlet red, salmon pink, dusky purple, and pure white. Many classic cultivars feature a prominent, dark purple-black blotch at the base of each petal, surrounding a central boss of dark stamens.  

Life Cycle & The “Poppy Gap”: The Oriental Poppy’s most notorious trait—and the primary design challenge for gardeners—is its summer dormancy. Shortly after its spectacular but fleeting bloom period of 10-14 days, the foliage begins to yellow, wither, and die back completely, leaving a significant empty space, or “poppy gap,” in the garden by mid-summer. This is a natural and healthy part of its life cycle, an adaptation to survive hot, dry summers in its native habitat. The plant is not dead; its deep taproot is simply resting. In the cooler temperatures of autumn, a new basal rosette of leaves will emerge and remain evergreen through the winter, ready for the following spring’s growth spurt.  

Cultivation: Oriental Poppies are exceptionally cold-hardy, thriving in USDA Zones 3-8. They demand full sun for best flowering and absolutely require fertile, well-drained soil. They are deeply intolerant of “wet feet,” and heavy, waterlogged clay soil will lead to root rot, especially during their winter dormancy. They also struggle in regions with high heat and humidity, generally performing poorly south of Zone 7. Once planted, they are best left undisturbed; their long, fleshy taproot resents being moved. For this reason, propagation by root cuttings in late summer is the most reliable method for creating new, true-to-type plants.  

3.2 Corn Poppy / Flanders Poppy (Papaver rhoeas)

Overview: An iconic hardy annual wildflower, the Corn Poppy is beloved for its delicate, cheerful blooms and its profound status as the symbol of remembrance for soldiers lost in World War I. Native to the temperate regions of the Old World, it was once a common sight in the agricultural fields of Europe, giving it the names Corn Poppy and Field Poppy.  

Characteristics: This is a more diminutive and delicate plant than its Oriental cousin, typically growing 1 to 2.5 feet tall on slender, branching, bristly-hairy stems. The leaves are also hairy and are coarsely toothed and pinnately lobed. The flowers, about 2 inches across, are the essence of ephemeral beauty. They consist of four to six thin, papery petals that seem to float on the breeze. The classic color is a vibrant scarlet-red, often with a distinct black blotch at the base of each petal. However, through selection, a wide range of cultivars now exists, most famously the ‘Shirley’ series, which offers single, semi-double, and fully double flowers in shades of pink, white, salmon, and lilac, often with picotee edges and without the black spots.  

Cultivation: The Corn Poppy is adaptable and easy to grow, hardy in Zones 3-10. It performs best in full sun and prefers organically rich, medium-moisture, well-drained soil, though it is tolerant of average soils. Unlike many other poppies, it is not particularly drought-tolerant and appreciates consistent moisture. Its greatest asset for the informal gardener is its tendency to self-seed vigorously. Once established, it will readily naturalize, returning year after year to sprinkle color through cottage gardens, borders, and wildflower meadows.  

3.3 Opium Poppy / Breadseed Poppy (Papaver somniferum)

Overview: Papaver somniferum is a plant of profound duality. It is at once a stunningly beautiful and easy-to-grow hardy annual, a source of edible seeds for baking (hence the name Breadseed Poppy), a beloved cottage garden staple, and the sole source of opium and its powerful alkaloid derivatives. Its cultivation is steeped in history, beauty, and legal complexity.  

Characteristics: This species has an upright, stately presence, growing 3 to 4 feet tall. The foliage is distinct from other common poppies, consisting of smooth, wavy-edged, scalloped leaves that are a glaucous blue-gray color and clasp the stem. The flowers are large and held high on strong stems. The diversity of flower forms and colors is immense, ranging from single, cup-shaped blooms to incredibly dense, fully double, peony-flowered forms (‘Paeoniiflorum’ group) and cultivars with deeply fringed or laciniated petals. Colors include pure white, soft pink, lilac, lavender, deep plum-purple, and fiery red. After the petals drop, the plant’s other ornamental feature is revealed: a large, glaucous, urn-shaped seed pod that is highly prized for dried arrangements.  

Cultivation: Breadseed Poppies are hardy annuals, generally suitable for Zones 3-8. They require full sun and fertile, well-drained soil to perform their best. Like most poppies, they have a sensitive taproot and strongly resent being transplanted, making direct sowing the recommended method. They are prolific self-seeders, and once a gardener has a patch, volunteers will likely appear in subsequent years.  

Legal Note: The cultivation of Papaver somniferum is subject to legal restrictions in many countries, including the United States, due to its potential for narcotic production. This topic will be addressed in detail in Chapter 13.

3.4 Iceland Poppy (Papaver nudicaule, syn. Oreomecon nudicaulis)

Overview: Despite its common name, the Iceland Poppy is not native to Iceland but to the subarctic regions of North America and Asia. It is a short-lived perennial, most often treated by gardeners as a hardy biennial or a cool-season annual, prized for its jewel-toned, fragrant flowers and its excellent qualities as a cut flower.  

Characteristics: The Iceland Poppy grows from a basal rosette of feathery, blue-green, pinnately lobed leaves. From this clump emerge slender, wiry, leafless (or “nude”) stems, which gives the species its scientific name,  

nudicaule. These stems, typically 1 to 2 feet tall, are topped with solitary, bowl-shaped flowers. The blooms are mildly fragrant and can reach up to 4 inches in diameter, with delicate, crinkled, crepe-paper petals surrounding a boss of golden stamens. The color range is enchanting, including pure white, sunny yellow, apricot, salmon, rose, pink, and vibrant orange.  

Cultivation: This is fundamentally a cool-weather plant. It is hardy in Zones 2-7 and thrives in climates with cool summer temperatures, both day and night. It will languish and quickly perish in the heat and humidity of warmer regions. It demands full sun and organically rich, moderately fertile, and consistently moist but well-drained soil. Unlike many other poppies, it does not appreciate dry conditions. Because it is more temperamental, it is often started from seed indoors 6-8 weeks before the last frost to get a head start on the season, though direct sowing is also possible. Its long vase life makes it a favorite of cut-flower growers.  

3.5 California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica)

Overview: A quintessential wildflower of the American West, the California Poppy blankets hillsides and roadsides with its fiery color from spring into summer. As the state flower of California, it is a symbol of the Golden State’s natural beauty. It is exceptionally easy to grow, drought-tolerant, and a perfect choice for beginner gardeners or those in dry climates.  

Characteristics: The California Poppy forms low, spreading mounds of delicate, feathery foliage, typically growing 1 to 1.5 feet tall and wide. The leaves are finely divided and an attractive blue-green color, providing a beautiful contrast to the flowers. The blooms are silky, cup-shaped, and typically a brilliant golden-orange or sunny yellow, though cultivars are available in shades of cream, red, and pink. A fascinating characteristic is their phototropic response: the flowers close up at night and on cloudy or rainy days, only opening in full sun. After flowering, slender, ribbed seed capsules form, which dehisce explosively when ripe, flinging seeds several feet from the parent plant.  

Cultivation: This species behaves as a short-lived perennial in mild-winter climates (Zones 8-10) but is more commonly grown as a reseeding annual in colder areas (hardy down to Zone 6). It is the epitome of a sun-loving, drought-tolerant plant. It thrives in full sun and performs best in poor, sandy, or gravelly soil with excellent drainage. In rich, fertile garden soil, it can be outcompeted by more vigorous neighbors. It is best established by sowing seed directly in the garden. In its native region and other mild climates, seed should be sown in the fall at the start of the rainy season. In colder climates, sow in early spring.  

Chapter 4: Expanding the Palette: Other Garden-Worthy Poppies

Beyond the iconic species, the poppy family offers a wealth of other fascinating plants that can add unique color, texture, and form to the garden. This chapter provides a brief introduction to some of these lesser-known but highly rewarding poppies.

• Alpine Poppy (Papaver alpinum): For gardeners with rockeries or troughs, the Alpine Poppy is a perfect fit. This charming, short-lived perennial forms a compact tuft of fern-like, blue-green leaves, staying just 5 to 10 inches tall. In late spring and summer, it sends up delicate, cup-shaped flowers in shades of yellow, orange, or white on slender stems. It is extremely drought-resistant and thrives in full sun and calcareous, rocky ground. It is hardy in USDA Zones 4-6.  
• Great Scarlet Poppy (Papaver bracteatum): Often mistaken for its close relative, the Oriental Poppy, the Great Scarlet Poppy is a more robust and towering perennial. Reaching up to 4 feet in height, it produces truly massive, bowl-shaped flowers that can be 4 to 8 inches across. The color is a deep, dramatic ruby-red, and each petal has a large, conspicuous purple-black spot at its base. It is a low-maintenance choice for a bold statement in the garden. It is hardy in Zones 4-9.  
• Matilija Poppy (Romneya coulteri): Known affectionately as the “fried egg plant,” the Matilija Poppy is a spectacular and vigorous shrubby perennial native to California and northern Mexico. It can grow into a substantial clump, reaching 6 to 8 feet in height and spread. From late spring through summer, it produces huge, fragrant flowers up to 9 inches across. The blooms feature 5 or 6 crinkled, pure white petals surrounding a dense, spherical boss of golden-yellow stamens. It is highly drought-tolerant and thrives in full sun, making it a stunning architectural plant for dry, spacious gardens. It is hardy in Zones 8-10.  
• Himalayan Blue Poppy (Meconopsis spp.): This is the legendary, almost mythical, blue poppy that has captivated and challenged gardeners for generations. These are not plants for the faint of heart. True Himalayan Poppies are perennials that demand very specific conditions to thrive: cool, moist, but well-drained acidic soil, high humidity, and dappled or partial shade, mimicking their native woodland habitat in the Himalayas. They are completely intolerant of hot, dry climates. For those who can provide the right environment, the reward is breathtakingly beautiful, sky-blue flowers. They are generally hardy in Zones 5-9, but climate is more important than zone.  
• Welsh Poppy (Papaver cambricum): A cheerful and reliable perennial, the Welsh Poppy offers a long season of bloom from late spring through fall. It forms clumps of bright green, hairy leaves from which arise wiry stems bearing bowl-shaped flowers, typically in sunny yellow or soft orange. It is easy to grow, thrives in partial shade and moist soil, and will self-seed freely to naturalize in hospitable spots, making it an excellent choice for woodland or cottage gardens. It is hardy in Zones 6-8.  
• Prickly Poppy (Argemone spp.): As their name suggests, these are tough, resilient plants. Native to the Americas, Prickly Poppies are annuals or biennials characterized by their spiny, thistle-like, often blue-green foliage and striking flowers. The blooms are poppy-like, with delicate white or yellow petals surrounding a bright yellow center. They are extremely deer-resistant, low-maintenance, and thrive in full sun and dry conditions, making them a great choice for wildflower gardens or challenging sites. Hardiness varies by species but can range from Zones 2-11.  
• Tree Poppy (Dendromecon rigida): A true California native, the Tree Poppy is a woody, evergreen shrub that can reach 3 to 10 feet in height. It has narrow, blue-green leaves and is covered in slightly fragrant, brilliant yellow, cup-shaped flowers for a long period from spring through fall. It is a fantastic low-maintenance, drought-tolerant plant for gardens in Mediterranean climates, demanding full sun and excellent drainage. It is hardy in Zones 8-10.  

Chapter 5: A-Z of Recommended Cultivars

Choosing the right poppy can be daunting given the sheer number of available varieties. This table is designed to serve as a quick-reference tool, allowing gardeners to easily compare cultivars across the most popular species and select the perfect plant for their specific color, size, and design needs. The information has been compiled and distilled from numerous horticultural sources to provide a practical, at-a-glance guide.  

Part III: The Complete Poppy Cultivation Manual

Successful gardening is a blend of art and science. While the previous section showcased the artistic palette of poppies available, this section delves into the science of their cultivation. From preparing the perfect soil to mastering the finicky art of germination and providing ongoing care, these chapters provide a comprehensive, step-by-step manual for growing healthy, beautiful poppies.

Chapter 6: Foundations for Success: Site, Soil, and Preparation

Before a single seed is sown, the groundwork for success must be laid. For poppies, this means carefully selecting a site and preparing the soil to meet their specific, and often non-negotiable, needs.

Sun Exposure

The vast majority of poppies are sun-worshippers. For the most vigorous growth, strongest stems, and most prolific flowering, a location that receives at least six hours of direct, bright sunlight per day is essential. This applies to nearly all the popular garden types, including Oriental, Corn, Breadseed, Iceland, and California poppies. While some may tolerate partial shade, growth will often be less robust and flowering will be diminished. There are notable exceptions, such as the Himalayan Blue Poppy (  

Meconopsis) and the native Wood Poppy (Stylophorum diphyllum), which have evolved in woodland settings and require partial or dappled shade to thrive.  

The Critical Role of Drainage

If there is one golden rule for growing poppies, it is this: they demand excellent drainage. This is the single most critical factor for their survival and health. Poppies, particularly the perennial species with fleshy taproots like the Oriental Poppy, will not tolerate “wet feet” or soil that remains waterlogged. Heavy clay soils that retain excessive moisture are a primary cause of failure, leading to root rot, which is almost always fatal, especially during the plant’s winter dormancy.  

For gardeners with heavy or compacted soil, amending the site is not optional, but essential. Several strategies can be employed to improve drainage:

• Raised Beds: Creating a raised bed or berm lifts the plant’s root zone above the surrounding waterlogged soil, ensuring water can drain away freely.  
• Soil Amendments: Incorporating generous amounts of organic matter, such as compost, will improve soil structure. For heavy clay, adding inorganic materials like coarse sand or fine grit can dramatically improve porosity and drainage.  

Soil Type and pH

Beyond drainage, poppies are generally adaptable to a range of soil types. Many annuals, like the Corn Poppy and especially the California Poppy, are famous for their ability to thrive in average or even poor, infertile soil. This makes them excellent candidates for less-than-ideal garden spots.  

The Oriental Poppy is a notable exception to this rule. To support its large stature and massive blooms, it performs best in richer, more fertile soil.  

In terms of soil pH, most poppies prefer a neutral to slightly alkaline environment, with a target pH range of roughly 6.5 to 7.5. Gardeners with acidic soil may find it beneficial to add lime to raise the pH into a more favorable range for poppies. For large or dedicated plantings, conducting a soil test is a wise investment to determine the existing pH and nutrient levels, allowing for precise amendments.  

Soil Preparation

The final step before planting is to prepare the seedbed. For most annual poppies, this can be a simple process. The primary tasks are to clear the area of all weeds and to loosen the top few inches of soil with a rake or fork to create a fine, friable surface for the seeds.  

For perennial poppies like the Oriental Poppy, which will occupy their site for many years, more thorough preparation is warranted. This involves digging the soil to a depth of at least 12-15 inches and incorporating a generous amount of well-rotted compost or manure to improve both fertility and drainage, creating an ideal long-term home for the plant’s deep taproot.  

Chapter 7: The Art of Germination: Sowing Poppy Seeds

Starting poppies from seed can be one of a gardener’s most rewarding experiences, but it is also a process fraught with potential pitfalls. The tiny seeds have specific requirements that can seem counterintuitive to novice growers. However, by understanding two unifying principles—the need for cold and the need for light—the seemingly confusing advice on how and when to sow poppies becomes clear and manageable.

The Unifying Principles: Cold Stratification and Light

Across the diverse range of poppy species, two germination requirements are nearly universal:

1. Cold Stratification: Many poppy seeds have a built-in dormancy mechanism that prevents them from sprouting at the wrong time of year. To break this dormancy, they require a period of exposure to cold, moist conditions, a process known as cold stratification. This natural trigger signals that winter has passed and it is safe to grow.  
2. Light Requirement: Poppy seeds are extremely small and contain limited energy reserves. As a result, they need light to germinate. This means they must be sown on or very near the surface of the soil. If they are buried too deeply, they will not receive the light signal they need to sprout and will fail.  

Understanding these two principles is the key to resolving the most common question gardeners have: when is the best time to plant poppy seeds? The answer is not a specific date on the calendar, but rather a specific set of environmental conditions. The goal for the gardener is to time the sowing so that the seeds receive their necessary cold period naturally over the winter, allowing them to germinate at the perfect moment in spring. This timing is entirely dependent on the local climate.

• Cold Climates (USDA Zones 2-6): In regions with harsh, freezing winters, the best strategy is to sow seeds in very early spring, as soon as the ground has thawed and can be worked. An alternative and popular method is to sow the seeds directly on top of a thin layer of snow in late winter (January through March). As the snow melts, it gently works the seeds into the soil surface and provides the final weeks of cold, moist stratification. Sowing in the fall in these cold climates is generally not recommended, as a premature warm spell could cause seedlings to germinate, only to be killed by the subsequent deep freeze.  
• Mild Climates (USDA Zones 7-10): In areas with cooler, wetter winters that lack prolonged deep freezes, the ideal time to sow is in late autumn or early winter (typically November through January). Sowing at this time allows the seeds to experience the gentle winter chill they need for stratification. They will germinate and form a small, hardy rosette of leaves that overwinters, ready to burst into vigorous growth and bloom in the spring before the intense summer heat arrives.  

Sowing Techniques

Direct Sowing (Recommended)

Because poppies have a long, delicate taproot, they are notoriously sensitive to root disturbance and resent being transplanted. For this reason, direct sowing seeds in their final growing position is the most reliable and highly recommended method for nearly all varieties.  

The technique is simple:

1. Prepare a weed-free, raked-smooth seedbed.
2. Mix the tiny poppy seeds with a small amount of dry sand or vermiculite. This acts as a carrier, making it much easier to distribute the seeds evenly and avoid dense clumps.  
3. Scatter the seed-sand mixture over the surface of the soil.  
4. Lightly press the soil with your hand or the back of a rake to ensure good seed-to-soil contact, but do not cover the seeds with soil.  
5. Gently water the area with a fine mist to avoid washing the seeds away.  

Starting Indoors (For the Dedicated)

While challenging, starting seeds indoors is possible and is sometimes done for more expensive or temperamental varieties like Iceland Poppies.  

1. Use biodegradable peat or coir pots that can be planted directly into the garden, which minimizes root disturbance.  
2. Sow seeds 6 to 8 weeks before your average last frost date.  
3. Sow sparingly on the surface of a sterile seed-starting mix. Do not use a heat mat, as poppies prefer cool conditions for germination.  
4. Provide very bright light. An overhead grow light is superior to a windowsill.  
5. Transplant the entire pot into the garden when the seedlings are still very small, typically after they have developed their first set of true leaves.  

Troubleshooting Germination Failure

If poppy seeds fail to germinate, the cause is almost always one of the following four issues:

• Sown Too Deep: The seeds were buried and did not receive the light they need. Solution: Always surface-sow and only lightly press into the soil.  
• Soil Dried Out: The delicate germinating seeds dried out before they could establish roots. Solution: Keep the seedbed consistently moist (but not waterlogged) until seedlings are well-established.  
• Lack of Cold Stratification: The seeds were sown too late in spring in a cold climate, or the winter was too warm in a mild climate. Solution: Sow at the correct time for your climate. To mimic winter, you can artificially stratify seeds by mixing them with moist sand in a plastic bag and refrigerating them for 2-4 weeks before planting.  
• Weeded Out By Mistake: Poppy seedlings are incredibly tiny and their blue-green foliage can be easily mistaken for a weed and removed during spring cleanup. Solution: Clearly mark the areas where you have sown seeds. Learn to identify the lacy, blue-green seedlings to distinguish them from weeds.  

Chapter 8: Tending the Bloom: Ongoing Care and Maintenance

Once poppy seedlings have successfully germinated and established, their ongoing care is relatively straightforward. These are resilient plants that often thrive on a degree of neglect, but a few key maintenance tasks will ensure they remain healthy, vigorous, and produce the most spectacular display of flowers.

Watering

Proper watering is a balancing act. Young seedlings and newly transplanted poppies require consistent moisture to establish their root systems. During this phase, the soil should be kept evenly moist but never saturated or waterlogged.  

Once the plants are established, however, their water needs decrease significantly. Most poppy species are quite drought-tolerant. A deep watering once a week during dry spells is generally sufficient. Overwatering is a far greater danger than underwatering and is a primary cause of fungal diseases like root rot. Always check the soil before watering; if the top inch or two is dry, it’s time to water.  

Fertilizing

Poppies are not heavy feeders, and excessive fertilization is one of the most common mistakes gardeners make. Applying a fertilizer high in nitrogen will result in a profusion of lush, leafy green foliage but very few, if any, flowers. For most garden soils, poppies require no supplemental feeding at all.  

If the soil is particularly poor, or for heavy-blooming perennials like Oriental Poppies, a single application of a balanced, slow-release fertilizer or a side-dressing of well-rotted compost in the spring is all that is needed. If a plant is producing excessive foliage and no blooms, it is a sign of too much nitrogen. In this specific case, applying a fertilizer with a higher phosphorus content (the “P” in the N-P-K ratio) can help encourage the plant to shift its energy from leaf growth to flower production.  

Thinning

For poppies that have been direct-sown from seed, thinning is a crucial step that is often neglected. When seeds are scattered, they inevitably germinate in dense clumps. If left to grow this way, the seedlings will be overcrowded, competing for light, water, and nutrients. This results in weak, spindly plants that produce few flowers.  

To prevent this, seedlings should be thinned when they are about 1 to 2 inches tall. Using small scissors to snip the unwanted seedlings at the soil line is better than pulling them, as pulling can disturb the delicate roots of the remaining plants. Thin to the recommended spacing for the specific variety, which is typically between 6 and 12 inches apart. This may feel ruthless, but it is essential for developing strong, healthy, and floriferous plants.  

Mulching

Applying a layer of organic mulch, such as shredded leaves or straw, around the base of poppy plants offers several benefits. It helps to conserve soil moisture, suppress weed growth, and regulate soil temperature. For perennial poppies in colder climates, a thick layer of winter mulch (such as evergreen boughs) applied after the ground has frozen helps to protect the plant’s crown from the damaging effects of repeated freezing and thawing cycles.  

Deadheading

Deadheading is the practice of removing spent flowers before they can develop into seed pods. This simple task can significantly extend the blooming period for many poppy varieties. By preventing the plant from setting seed, its energy is redirected into producing more flower buds. For annuals like Corn Poppies and Iceland Poppies, regular deadheading can keep them flowering for many weeks.  

However, deadheading is entirely optional. Many gardeners choose to leave the seed pods on the plant for two reasons. First, the pods themselves, especially the large, glaucous pods of the Breadseed Poppy, are highly ornamental and add structural interest to the garden long after the flowers have faded. They are also prized for use in dried floral arrangements. Second, allowing the pods to mature and release their seeds is the easiest way to ensure the plants will self-sow and return the following year, creating a sustainable and ever-evolving garden display. A good compromise is to deadhead the first flush of blooms to encourage more flowers, then allow the later blooms to go to seed.  

Chapter 9: The Gardener’s Legacy: Propagation and Seed Saving

One of the great joys of growing poppies is their generosity. Many species readily multiply, either on their own or with a little help from the gardener, providing new plants to expand the garden or share with others. Mastering the techniques of propagation and seed saving allows the gardener to become a true steward of their collection, preserving favorite varieties and ensuring a legacy of color for years to come.

Managing Self-Seeders

Many of the most popular annual poppies, including the Corn Poppy (P. rhoeas) and the Breadseed Poppy (P. somniferum), are prolific self-seeders. Some perennials, like the Welsh Poppy (  

P. cambricum), also spread readily by seed. In an informal cottage or meadow garden, this is a desirable trait, as the plants will naturalize and pop up in charming, unexpected places, even in the cracks of a driveway.  

This habit requires a relaxed approach to gardening and a willingness to edit. In the spring, the gardener’s main task is to thin out the volunteer seedlings, removing them from where they are too crowded or unwanted. If a more controlled garden is desired, diligent deadheading is necessary to prevent the seed pods from forming in the first place.  

Propagation by Division

Clump-forming perennial poppies, most notably the Oriental Poppy, can be propagated by division. However, due to their deep, fleshy taproot that resents disturbance, this should not be done frequently. Division is typically only necessary to rejuvenate an old, overcrowded clump, perhaps once every five years or so.  

The best time to divide Oriental Poppies is in late summer (typically August), when the plant is fully dormant and its foliage has died back.  

1. Carefully dig around the perimeter of the plant with a sturdy garden fork, going as deep as possible to lift the entire root mass.
2. Gently pry the clump apart into smaller sections with your hands or a sharp knife. Ensure that each new division has at least one “eye” (a growth bud) and a healthy portion of the taproot.  
3. Replant the divisions immediately in their new locations, in deeply prepared soil, ensuring the crown is planted about 3 inches below the soil surface. Water thoroughly to settle the soil.  

Propagation by Root Cuttings

For Oriental Poppies, propagation by root cuttings is the most reliable method for creating new plants that are genetically identical to the parent. This technique takes advantage of the plant’s ability to regenerate from small pieces of its root.  

1. Perform this procedure in late summer during the plant’s dormancy.  
2. Carefully excavate the soil around the crown of an established plant to expose some of the fleshy roots.
3. Using a sharp, clean knife, select and cut several pencil-thick root sections, each about 2 to 3 inches long.  
4. It is crucial to keep track of which end of the cutting was closer to the plant’s crown (the “up” end).  
5. Fill a flat or pot with a moist, sterile mix of peat moss and sand.  
6. Insert the root cuttings vertically into the mix, with the “up” end facing up, so the top of the cutting is flush with the surface of the medium.  
7. Cover the container with a plastic bag or humidity dome, place it in a warm, bright but shaded location, and keep the medium moist. Shoots should eventually appear, at which point the new plants can be moved to larger pots to grow on before being planted in the garden.  

Harvesting and Storing Seeds

Saving seeds is a simple and economical way to perpetuate annual poppies or to share them with fellow gardeners.

When to Harvest

Timing is key to ensure seed viability. Do not harvest pods when they are still green. Wait until the flowers have faded and the seed pods have turned from green to a pale tan or brown and are completely dry on the stem. The definitive sign that the seeds are mature and ready for harvest is when they rattle inside the pod when the stem is shaken. This typically occurs 80 to 90 days after planting. At this stage, the small pores or “windows” located under the pod’s flat top, or “crown,” will begin to open to allow for natural dispersal.  

How to Harvest

Once the pods are dry and rattling, use scissors or pruners to clip them off the plant with a few inches of stem attached. To prevent the tiny seeds from spilling, it is wise to hold the pod upright and place it directly into a paper bag or container. For extra security against premature seed loss, some gardeners tie a small muslin bag or a piece of old nylon stocking over the developing seed heads on the plant as they begin to dry.  

Extraction and Storage

1. Place the harvested pods in a dry, well-ventilated location for another week or two to ensure they are completely moisture-free.  
2. To extract the seeds, simply turn the pods upside down over a bowl or piece of paper and shake them. The thousands of tiny seeds will pour out of the pores at the top, much like a salt shaker.  
3. Store the thoroughly dried seeds in a clearly labeled, airtight container, such as a small glass jar or a sealed plastic bag.  
4. Keep the container in a cool, dark, and dry place. A refrigerator is an excellent storage location. Properly stored culinary seeds will retain their flavor for up to a year, while seeds saved for sowing are best planted the following season for optimal germination rates.  

Part IV: Designing with Poppies

With their diverse forms, vibrant colors, and dynamic life cycles, poppies are versatile players in the garden landscape. They can be used to create a wide range of aesthetic effects, from the romantic chaos of a cottage garden to the bold, architectural statements of a modern border. Understanding how to place poppies and what to plant alongside them is the key to unlocking their full design potential.

Chapter 10: Poppies in the Landscape

Different poppies are suited to different garden styles. Choosing the right species for the right context will create a harmonious and successful design.

Cottage Gardens

Poppies are the heart and soul of the traditional cottage garden. Their informal, self-seeding nature is perfectly suited to this romantic and seemingly effortless style. Annuals like the Corn Poppy (  

Papaver rhoeas), Shirley Poppies, and Breadseed Poppies (Papaver somniferum) are ideal for this setting. They can be sprinkled through perennial borders, where they will weave among other classic cottage plants like roses, lavender, and foxgloves, filling gaps with ephemeral bursts of color. Their tendency to self-sow means they will reappear in new and delightful combinations each year, contributing to the charming, unplanned look that defines the cottage aesthetic. Perennial Oriental Poppies also have a place, providing bold, early-season focal points before receding to let other plants take center stage.  

Wildflower Meadows

Poppies are a staple component of commercial “wildflower meadow” seed mixes, and for good reason. Mass plantings of annuals like the Red Corn Poppy and the California Poppy can create breathtaking carpets of color that evoke a natural, untamed landscape.  

However, it is crucial for the gardener to understand a key distinction. The classic image of a meadow filled with poppies and cornflowers is, botanically speaking, a misconception. These plants are not true meadow perennials; they are arable annuals, species adapted to thrive in the disturbed soil of agricultural fields. A true meadow is a stable ecosystem of perennial grasses and flowers that persists year after year with minimal soil disturbance. A poppy-and-cornflower “meadow,” while beautiful, is a temporary effect that relies on annual disturbance—such as tilling or re-sowing—to persist. Without this annual cycle of disturbance, the poppies will eventually be outcompeted by perennial grasses and weeds. Understanding this helps manage expectations: a poppy meadow is a stunning but high-turnover planting style, distinct from a permanent perennial meadow.  

Rock Gardens and Dryscapes

The smaller stature and sharp drainage requirements of certain poppy species make them ideal for rock gardens and dry, gravelly landscapes. The diminutive Alpine Poppy (Papaver alpinum), with its tufted foliage and delicate blooms, is perfectly scaled for the tight pockets and crevices of a rockery.  

For larger-scale dryscapes and xeriscaping projects, drought-tolerant species are invaluable. The California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica) is a star performer, thriving in the heat and poor, dry soils where other plants would fail. The magnificent Matilija Poppy (  

Romneya coulteri) provides a dramatic, architectural element for large, dry gardens, while the Prickly Poppy (Argemone) adds unique texture and resilience.  

Borders and Beds

In more formal perennial borders and beds, poppies play several roles. Perennial species like the Oriental Poppy serve as spectacular, high-impact focal points in late spring and early summer. Their bold, vertical forms and massive flowers draw the eye and provide a climax of color before their planned summer dormancy.  

Annual poppies can be used in several ways. They can be planted in large, dense drifts to create a block of solid color, or they can be scattered more sparsely throughout the border to pop up between other perennials, filling gaps and adding a light, airy texture.  

Containers

Most poppy species can be successfully grown in containers, which offers several advantages. It allows gardeners with heavy clay soil to provide the sharp drainage poppies need, and it helps control the spread of aggressive self-seeders. The key is to choose a deep pot—at least 10 to 12 inches deep—to accommodate the plant’s long taproot. A single Oriental Poppy can serve as a stunning “thriller” in a large mixed container, while smaller species like Iceland or California poppies are excellent for pot culture on a sunny patio or balcony.  

Chapter 11: Perfect Partners: A Guide to Companion Planting

Thoughtful companion planting is essential for creating a cohesive and beautiful garden design with poppies. The right partners will complement the poppies’ colors and forms, attract beneficial insects, and, most importantly, help solve the unique design challenges posed by their life cycles. The primary considerations for choosing companions are managing competition and planning for dormancy. The wrong partners can easily outcompete poppies for light, water, and nutrients, or create soil conditions that are detrimental to their health.

Solving the Oriental Poppy “Poppy Gap”

The single greatest design challenge when using Oriental Poppies (P. orientale) is the large, empty space they leave behind when they go dormant in mid-summer. The strategic placement of companion plants is the solution to this “poppy gap.”  

The ideal companions are plants that emerge later in the season and have a sprawling or bushy growth habit that will expand to fill the void left by the poppies. Crucially, these companions must share the poppy’s preference for full sun and well-drained soil and should not be so aggressive as to choke out the poppy’s root system.  

Excellent Companions for Oriental Poppies:

• Late-Blooming Perennials: Plants like Baby’s Breath (Gypsophila paniculata), Catmint (Nepeta), Russian Sage (Perovskia atriplicifolia), Yarrow (Achillea), Tall Garden Phlox (Phlox paniculata), Daylilies (Hemerocallis), Coneflowers (Echinacea), and Black-Eyed Susans (Rudbeckia) are perfect choices. Their foliage develops as the poppy’s fades, and their summer blooms provide a second wave of color.  
• Architectural Perennials: The sturdy forms of Siberian Iris (Iris sibirica) and Peonies (Paeonia) work well planted in front of or next to poppies.  
• Ornamental Grasses: The airy texture of grasses like Feather Reed Grass (Calamagrostis x acutiflora) can beautifully camouflage the declining poppy foliage.  
• Shallow-Rooted Annuals: Fast-growing annuals like Cosmos, Nicotiana, or Zinnias can be planted around the poppies to quickly fill the summer gap.  

Companion Plants for California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica)

As a drought-tolerant native of the American West, the California Poppy pairs best with other plants that thrive in sun and dry soil.

• Mediterranean Plants: English Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and culinary Sage (Salvia officinalis) are excellent partners, sharing similar cultural needs and providing a pleasing contrast in color and texture.  
• California Natives: For a regionally appropriate design, pair with other natives like White Sage (Salvia apiana), California Fuchsia (Epilobium canum), California Buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), and various species of Lupine (Lupinus).  

Companion Plants for Corn Poppy (Papaver rhoeas)

The Corn Poppy is a classic element of cottage gardens and wildflower plantings. It combines beautifully with other cool-season annuals that share its informal charm.

• Classic Meadow Partners: The most iconic pairing is with Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), whose brilliant blue provides a stunning contrast to the poppy’s red.  
• Cottage Garden Favorites: Larkspur (Consolida), Bachelor’s Buttons, Borage (Borago officinalis), Sweet Peas (Lathyrus odoratus), and Cosmos create a vibrant, self-sowing tapestry.  
• Pest Repelling Companions: Planting near Calendula or Nasturtiums can help repel or trap insect pests like aphids.  
• Structural Accents: The spherical flower heads of Ornamental Onions (Allium) provide a wonderful textural and formal contrast to the delicate, airy poppies.  

Companion Plants for Iceland Poppy (Papaver nudicaule)

Because Iceland Poppies thrive in cool weather and are often grown as cool-season annuals, they pair well with other spring-blooming plants.

• Spring Annuals and Biennials: Pansies, violas, and dianthus are excellent choices for the front of the border, complementing the poppy’s pastel hues.  
• Spring Bulbs: The jewel-toned flowers of Iceland Poppies look stunning planted amongst late-blooming tulips and the dramatic forms of Crown Imperials (Fritillaria imperialis).  
• Textural Contrast: The fine, airy foliage of Mexican Feather Grass (Nassella tenuissima) provides a soft, graceful backdrop for the poppy’s bold flowers.  

Plants to Avoid

Just as important as knowing what to plant with poppies is knowing what not to plant. Bad pairings can lead to a garden disaster, with the poppies being outcompeted, shaded, or succumbing to rot. The core principle is to avoid plants with conflicting cultural needs or overly aggressive growth habits.  

• Aggressive Spreaders: Vigorously spreading plants, especially mints and invasive Artemisia varieties like wormwood, will quickly overrun a poppy patch, strangling their roots.  
• Water-Lovers: Plants that require consistently moist soil, such as Hostas and Astilbe, create conditions that are fatal to sun-loving, drought-tolerant poppies, especially during their summer dormancy.  
• Heavy Feeders and Nitrogen-Fixers: Vegetables like tomatoes and legumes like beans and peas require rich soil and consistent moisture, and legumes add nitrogen to the soil. These conditions will cause poppies to produce excessive foliage at the expense of flowers.  
• Overly Tall or Dense Competitors: Tall, dense plants like sunflowers, some large ornamental grasses, and aggressive clumpers like Coneflowers (Echinacea) can cast too much shade and outcompete poppies for light, water, and nutrients.  
• Dense Groundcovers: Spreading groundcovers like Creeping Jenny (Lysimachia nummularia) or Vinca prevent poppy seeds from reaching the soil to germinate and compete for surface resources.  

Part V: Troubleshooting and Important Considerations

Even with the best planning, gardeners can encounter challenges. This final section serves as a practical field guide for diagnosing and treating common poppy problems, from pests and diseases to cultivation errors. It also addresses the critically important topics of toxicity and the legal landscape surrounding the cultivation of certain poppy species, providing the responsible gardener with the information needed to grow these beautiful plants safely and confidently.

Chapter 12: Poppy Plant Health: A Diagnostic Guide

When a plant is struggling, quick and accurate diagnosis is key. This table is designed to help gardeners identify the cause of common poppy ailments and find an effective solution. It synthesizes information from numerous plant health resources to provide a scannable, practical tool.